Decades of continued disputes over the legitimacy of contending dynasties undermined the stability of the Seleucid kingdom, preventing 'the Palestinian problem' from resolution.
In Judea, the brothers of Judas Maccabeus, Johnathan I and Simon Maccabeus attained powerful positions as ruling successors to the recently slain Judas; the prior ruling from 161 to 143 BC, the latter from 143 to 132 BC.
'Secular Ruler' of a New Dynasty
One of the Seleucid pretenders, Alexander Balas, attempted to undermine King Demetruis by anointing Jonathan I high priest of Judea, legitimizing him as a courtier of the kingdom. Following the succession of Simon, Alexander granted him high priest with honour of 'secular ruler', endowing a new era, as recorded in official documents of the time. From King Demetrius' successor, Demetrius II, Simon further secured another dose of popularity over his people, by having a tax exemption granted for the Jews of Palestine.
Shortly after this announcement, Simon masterminded the surrender of a Syrian garrison stationed in Akra, which culminated in the bestowing of the permanent line of Simon’s successors to rule as high priest of Palestine. It was stated that Simon’s line may continue until ‘an accredited prophet’ should ascend among the people.
This marked a shift from the rule of a priest, to serve as a form of prince, to a secularized, hereditary rule. So much so, that Simon and his successive line of 'high priests' were recognised as a form of dynasty, and a legitimate one at that; the Seleucid kingdom granted Simon the ability to produce his own coinage.
Son and successor of Simon Maccabean, John Hyrcanus I, ruled from 134 to 104 BC, expanded Palestine, conquering Samaria. Domestically, John Hyrcanus I fell into dispute with the Pharisees, second of the major Jewish parties in Palestine, renowned for their strict piousness. Hyrcanus subsequently opposed the Pharisees by allying with the Sadducees-in opposition to the Pharisees.
Succeeding Hyrrcanus in 104BC, came the short reign of Aristobulus, who continued the legacy of Palestinian northern expansion, defeating the Ituraeans, an Arab tribe in the Hellenistic Lavantine region north of Galilee. Following their conquest, the Ituraeans were forced to subscribe to Jewish law, including circumscription-if they wished to remain in the territory.
The successful reign of Aristobulus I was suddenly cut short within a year, returning from the military campaign, after the Feast of Tabernacles, his health declined rapidly, wherein this state, fearing a conspiracy plotting his overthrow, Aristobulus became paranoid and confused killing his brother by what proved to be a catastrophic mistake. After this disaster, Aristobulus' health plummeted, until his death shortly after.
It was Alexander Jannaeus who ascended in 103 BC, and continued to rigorously oppose the Pharisees, ruling over an increasingly expanding Palestine. From the discovery of coins, it suggests that Alexander Jannaeus was adorned by both Jewish and Hellenistic legend, as ‘King Alexander’.
His widow, Salome Alexandra succeeded her husband, and sought to rekindle alliance with the Pharisees, whose religious movement she closely aligned with, granting them power as her political advisers. Alexander and Alexandria bore two sons, Aristobulus II and Hyrcranus II, who fought bitterly for the throne after the death of their mother. Despite the defeat in combat to his brother Aristobulus, Hyrcranus was reclaimed as ruler by right of the Edomite Antipater, son of the governor of Idumaea.
The son of Antipater became the future King Herod, the Great.
Arrival of Romans
In 63BC Pompey the Great moved in on the Seleucid Kingdom, during his campaigns in the East, seeking to conquer the region of Palestine. Pompey immediately attempting to mediate peace-talks and settlements between the warring brothers, Aristobulus and Hyrcranus. However, after a continuous break-down in communication, Pompey laid siege on Jerusalem and shortly afterwards, conquered it. This reduced the once powerful Selucid kingdom to the menial peripheries of Syria and Eastern Cilicia. With Jerusalem under the control of Rome, Pompey appointed Hyrcanus II as high priest, but stripped from the position of high-priest the title of 'king'- once granted by the conquered Seleucid kingdom.
To further assert the supreme rule of Rome, Pompey ordered the taxes of the Jews, and authorised the establishment of the Decapolis, granting autonomy to Hellenistic city states of Syria and Palestine, placing them under the jurisdiction of newly created role of ‘Governor of Syria’.
From Pompey to Caesar
Following the Roman civil war and murder of Pompey, Julius Caesar became the sole ruler of the shifting Rome Republic. During this conflict, Antipater and his family had developed a powerful influence. The rule of high priest Hyrcanus II became merely symbolic, and was rendered a non-fundamental position of status
When Antipater sought to serve the interests of Julius Caesar, in exchange for their endorsement and protection, Caesar granted Antibus the title Procurator of Judea, undermining the legitimacy of Hyrcanus II and the Hasmonean line. Sons of Antibus, Phasael and Herod, became strategoi-governors of Jerusalem and Galilee.
Attack of the Parthians
In 40BC, the Parthians launched a surprise assault upon Palestine, capturing the city. Antigonus, who was son of the discredited Aristobulus, deemed as a legitimate Hasmonaean, allied with the Parthians, and by doing-so was rewarded by the entitlement of high priest and king of Jerusalem.
Following this declaration, Phasel and Herod escaped the city; the former committing suicide, and the latter seeking amnesty in Rome.
Bibliography
Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History, Nur Mashala (London, Zed Books Ltd, 2019)
Plutarch's Lives, with an English Translation, from Bernadotte Perrin (London, William Heinemann, MCMXIV)
Revealing the History of Ancient Palestine, Changing Perspectives 8 by Keith W.Whitelam (London, Routledge, 2018)
The Books of the Maccabees: History, Theology, Ideology, edited by Geza G. Xeravitis, Jozef Zsengeller (Boston, Brill, 2007)
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